Policing the Onion Router (Tor) crypto-markets on the dark web: An analysis of South African investigatory powers

by | Apr 3, 2024 | SACJ, SACJ V36 I3 2023

Policing the Onion Router (Tor) crypto-markets on the dark web: An analysis of South African investigatory powers

Author: Eveshnie Reddy

ISSN: 1996-2118
Affiliations: BCrim (Hons) (UKZN) MTech (Unisa); Senior Lecturer, Department of Criminology and Security Science, School of Criminal Justice, Unisa
Source: South African Journal of Criminal Justice, Volume 36 Issue 3, p. 406 – 433
https://doi.org/10.47348/SACJ/v36/i3a3

Abstract

Emerging financial technology (fintech), such as cryptocurrencies and privacy-enhancing technology (pets) such as the Onion Router (Tor), enable varying levels of anonymity or pseudonymity based on underlying encryption algorithms. These technologies are increasingly exploited by cybercriminals for nefarious purposes on the dark web. This has resulted in the so-called tor crypto-markets that facilitate ‘digital organised crime.’ Thus, albeit not inherently criminogenic, encryption constitutes a barrier to criminal investigation. This article discusses two specific methods that police use to investigate and prosecute criminals operating on the dark web, through the use of hacking tools in the context of: (1) online undercover cybersurveillance operations; and (2) remote search and seizure. These methods differ in both scope and complexity and, importantly, bear distinct legal, technical, and ethical consequences that have yet to confront South African courts. As a result, these methods, in the context of dark web investigations, have not previously been considered in South African literature, but have received significant analysis in the United States, the Netherlands, and Australia. These methods will be discussed in the context of South African investigatory powers in order to determine whether there is a legal basis for its operation.

Empowering justice: The evolving landscape of cellphone analysis in modern criminal investigations and evidentiary collection

by | Apr 3, 2024 | SACJ, SACJ V36 I3 2023

Empowering justice: The evolving landscape of cellphone analysis in modern criminal investigations and evidentiary collection

Authors: D van Rooyen and JS Horne

ISSN: 1996-2118
Affiliations: PHD CJU Candidate, Department of Police Practice, School of Criminal Justice, University of South Africa; DLitt et Phil: Police Science (Unisa); Associate Professor, Department of Police Practice, School of Criminal Justice, University of South Africa
Source: South African Journal of Criminal Justice, Volume 36 Issue 3, p. 434 – 461
https://doi.org/10.47348/SACJ/v36/i3a4

Abstract

In the wake of rapid technological advancements, there has been a remarkable increase in the adoption of mobile devices, also profoundly altering the manner in which individuals use their cellphones. This technological shift, accompanied by increased functionality and popularity of cellphones, provides law enforcement agencies with new avenues for investigative approaches, notably in the realm of mobile forensics. This article explores mobile forensics as a crucial tool for gathering evidence in criminal investigations. Drawing from in-depth analysis, qualitative interviews with the South African Police Service (SAPS) investigators and detective branch commanders, digital forensic investigators/analysts, prosecutors from the National Prosecuting Authority (NPA), a cellphone record analyst, and an examination of local and international literature, the study underscores the significant role mobile forensics plays in effective crime investigation. It advocates for enhanced training of investigators to align with evolving technology, emphasising the need for law enforcement agencies, particularly the South African Police Service (SAPS), to adapt and advance their investigative techniques in the face of ongoing technological transformation. Ultimately, the article aims to demystify mobile forensic analysis, offering insights to aid South African investigators in refining their investigative practices.

Sharpening the subjective element of criminal liability in South African law

by | Apr 3, 2024 | SACJ, SACJ V36 I3 2023

Sharpening the subjective element of criminal liability in South African law

Author: Shannon Hoctor

ISSN: 1996-2118
Affiliations: BA LLB LLM (UCT) DJuris (Leiden) PG Dip (Latin) (Wales Trinity Saint David); Professor, Department of Public Law, Faculty of Law, Stellenbosch University
Source: South African Journal of Criminal Justice, Volume 36 Issue 3, p. 462 – 480
https://doi.org/10.47348/SACJ/v36/i3a5

Abstract

South African criminal law holds to a conception of human beings as morally autonomous, which is consistent with the right to dignity. The individual is the foundation of society and law, and must not be treated as an object or instrument. The right to dignity is limited by a guilty verdict, given the punitive and stigmatising consequences which follow. The infringement of the right to dignity which follows conviction is unjustifiable, unless the finding of liability is based on the offender’s control and choice. But a guilty verdict equally resonates with the right to dignity, by treating the offender as a responsible human agent. The basis for a guilty verdict is founded on blameworthiness. It follows that the subjective element of criminal liability is crucial in the just functioning of the assessment of criminal responsibility. Despite an earlier reliance on objective notions, following the pioneering work of JC de Wet, South African law has developed into a system of criminal responsibility based on a subjective, principled approach to liability, the ‘psychological approach’. The justifications for, operation of, and opportunities for further refinement of this vital feature of substantive South African criminal law forms the fabric of this article.

Book Review: Public Health Crisis Management and Criminal Liability of Governments: A Comparative Study of the Covid-19 Pandemic

by | Apr 3, 2024 | SACJ, SACJ V36 I3 2023

Book Review: Public Health Crisis Management and Criminal Liability of Governments: A Comparative Study of the Covid-19 Pandemic

Author: Melodie Labuschaigne

ISSN: 1996-2118
Affiliations: University of South Africa
Source: South African Journal of Criminal Justice, Volume 36 Issue 3, p. 481 – 484
https://doi.org/10.47348/SACJ/v36/i3a6

Abstract

None

Comment: Gambling law: Recent developments

by | Apr 3, 2024 | SACJ, SACJ V36 I3 2023

Comment: Gambling law: Recent developments

Author: Marita Carnelley

ISSN: 1996-2118
Affiliations: North-West University
Source: South African Journal of Criminal Justice, Volume 36 Issue 3, p. 485 – 497
https://doi.org/10.47348/SACJ/v36/i3a7

Abstract

Several judgments relating to gambling and the gambling industry have arisen over the past few years that are worthy of academic analysis. This contribution to that analysis will commence with Burgess v S (CA&R58/2022) [2023] ZAECMKHC 83; 2023 (2) SACR 558 (ECMk) (8 August 2023) in which the role that gambling addiction should play in the sentencing process arose, but was not properly dealt with. This will be followed with a discussion of several search and seizure cases, namely Ethypersadh v Minister of Police NO [2023] ZAGPPHC 595 (25 July 2023), Buchler v Minister of SAPS NO (6310/2022) [2023] ZAFSHC 1 (5 January 2023) and Strauss v Minister of Police NO (UM30/2019; UM34/2019) [2019] ZANWHC 23 (2 May 2019). The last section contains brief comments relating to the National Lottery: NDPP v Maweza Nkogatsi Inc (2020/11723) [2021] ZAGPJHC 826 (20 December 2021), as well as the progress in the recovery of looted lottery funds generated by the National Lottery and intended for charity and other good causes.

PRASA’s open-door commuter trains remain a reliable source of income for legal practitioners: a survey of recent case law

by | Apr 1, 2024 | TSAR, TSAR 2024 I2

PRASA’s open-door commuter trains remain a reliable source of income for legal practitioners: a survey of recent case law

Author: TJ Scott

ISSN: 1996-2207
Affiliations: Professor Extraordinarius in Private Law, University of South Africa
Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2024, p. 189-221
https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2024/i2a1

Abstract

Ofskoon die spoorwegstelsel in Suid-Afrika reeds vroeg ontwikkel het en tydens die vorige eeu ’n hoogtepunt van effektiwiteit én diensbaarheid bereik het, het dit oor die laaste dekades erg verval, in die besonder wat pendeldienste deur voorstedelike treine betref. Hierdie toestand het aanleiding gegee tot die stigting van die Rail Commuters Action Group wat in 2005 in Rail Commuters Action Group v Transnet t/a Metrorail daarin geslaag het om die konstitusionele hof daarvan te oortuig dat die Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa (PRASA) wat vir pendeldienste verantwoordelik is, ’n publiekregtelike verpligting het om pendelaars veilig te vervoer. Dieselfde hof het in 2016 in Mashongwa v Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa beslis dat PRASA se verpligting teenoor pendelaars ook privaatregtelik van aard is en dat verbreking daarvan die grondslag van ’n deliktuele vordering kan vorm.
In 2023 is daar verskeie uitsprake in die SAFLII hofverslae gerapporteer, waarvan die volgende vyf gehandel het oor beserings opgedoen deur pendelaars wat tydens hul reis by oop treindeure uitgeval het en ernstig beseer is: Mthethwa v Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa (PRASA), Maphela v Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa, Mathekga v Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa, Mavhungu v Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa en Davids v The Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa. In hierdie bydrae word elk van hierdie uitsprake krities ontleed om te bepaal hoe die howe die geykte beginsels van die deliktereg probeer toepas om die toenemende aantal sake van dié aard te besleg.
Slegs een van die uitsprake is as rapporteerbaar aangemerk (die Maphela-saak), wat aanduidend is van die feit dat die regters (met die uitsondering van die voorsittende beampte in die Davids-uitspraak almal waarnemend) nie van oordeel was dat hulle oorspronklike bydraes tot die regspleging gemaak het nie. Ofskoon dit die geval blyk te wees, bied hul uitsprake waardevolle voorbeelde vir die praktyk van hoe veral die onregmatigheids- en nalatigheidselement van die onregmatige daad in dié soort geval benader en toegepas word. Ongelukkig skiet meeste van hierdie uitsprake in ’n mindere of meerdere mate tekort ten aansien van die hantering van die regsteorie, byvoorbeeld wat die uiteensetting en toepassing van die toets vir nalatigheid betref. Dit kom ook voor of daar nie deurgaans duidelikheid heers oor die grense van die onregmatigheids- en nalatigheidselemente nie. Verder blyk dit dat die meerderheid regters tevrede was om die kousaliteitsvraag slegs met verwysing na feitelike kousaliteitsbeginsels te besleg, sonder om juridiese kousaliteit uitdruklik te oorweeg.
Dit blyk duidelik dat dringende stappe nodig is om die infrastruktuur van ons pendel-spoorverkeer te verbeter ten einde te verhoed dat die soort ongeval wat in hierdie bydrae onder die loep geneem word, voortduur, of selfs vererger. Tot tyd en wyl dit geskied, sal PRASA se treine met oop deure ’n betroubare inkomstebron vir regpraktisyns verseker.

’n Perdepaspoort, logboek, mantel of die invecta et illata in huureiendom is geen objekte van ’n retensiereg van die besitter nie

by | Apr 1, 2024 | TSAR, TSAR 2024 I2

’n Perdepaspoort, logboek, mantel of die invecta et illata in huureiendom is geen objekte van ’n retensiereg van die besitter nie

Author: JC Sonnekus

ISSN: 1996-2207
Affiliations: Professor in Privaatreg, Universiteit van Johannesburg
Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2024, p. 222-246
https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2024/i2a2

Abstract

A retentor derives no real security right from either an obligatory agreement or a real agreement with the owner of the thing he is retaining under his lien. Therefore he is not on the same footing as the holder of a right of hypothec, mortgage or pledge who is in possession of the thing of another as holder of a limited right of real security. With the exception of the pledgee with an additional entitlement agreed to by the pledgor to use the object of the pledge (pactum antichreseos), it is common to all the said limited real security figures that the retainer derives no entitlement to take advantage of the property of another in his possession. However, notwithstanding the fact that he may derive no benefit from his withholding of the object, he is responsible for preserving the object against damage or risk at his own expense as the de facto custodian of the object, although no agreement of bailment came about.
It would be wrong to assume randomly that all examples of rightful retention of another’s goods are examples of liens. It may also be the entitlement of a limited real security right such as the tacit hypothec of a landlord or patron of a restaurant. The ius retentionis of the holder of a lien is merely the limited entitlement of the creditor without any preceding agreement between the owner of the object being retained and the creditor entitling the latter to retain it as long as the owner as debtor is in default of paying his dues to the holder of the lien for costs incurred by the latter regarding the object of the lien.
No lien comes into play unless the required nexus exists regarding the parties involved and the object retained. In contrast, in the cases of a tacit hypothec of a landlord or innkeeper, there is no question of any coherence or nexus between the claim of the landlord to the invecta et illata or hotel-keeper to the coat of the guest as creditor and the object being retained.
Subject to special statutory regulation, no limited real security right can be established on an integral part of a thing. Only a thing that meets all the requirements as an object of a real right can be the object of a real right and this also applies to a limited real right. Possession of a thing requires exclusive control over it and not simply possession of an integral part or symbol of the object of the debtor’s real right of ownership if the object is classified as a movable. Possession is, however, no requirement for a derivative mode of acquisition of a real right on immovable property. It is submitted that mere possession of the passport of a horse or the logbook of an aeroplane does not suffice as symbolic possession of the horse or the aeroplane.
Withholding part of the due performance under a reciprocal agreement until the counterparty has fully performed or because by agreement the debtor wishes eg to occupy the new house for three months to see what defects in the construction comes to light before delivering the agreed retention money to the builder, is no example of a lien. The retaining of the agreed portion of the final performance by the mandator is neither an entitlement of a limited real right nor a lien. This is part of the agreed terms of the building contract and any attempt by the creditor to compel performance before the condition had been met can be averted with the exceptio non adimpleti contractus.

Novel aspects of the proposed African Principles on the Law Applicable to International Commercial Contracts

by | Apr 1, 2024 | TSAR, TSAR 2024 I2

Novel aspects of the proposed African Principles on the Law Applicable to International Commercial Contracts

Author: Jan L Neels

ISSN: 1996-2207
Affiliations: Professor of Private International Law and Director of the Research Centre for Private International Law in Emerging Countries at the University of Johannesburg
Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2024, p. 247-257
https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2024/i2a3

Abstract

Die voorgestelde African Principles on the Law Applicable to International Commercial Contracts is vernaamlik gebaseer op die Rome I Regulation on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations en die Hague Principles on Choice of Law in International Commercial Contracts. Hierdie bydrae bespreek egter die oorspronklike en vernuwende aspekte van die African Principles (“die Afrika-Beginsels”).
Sowel gedeeltelike as veelvuldige regskeuse word in die Afrika-Beginsels, benewens op sekere dele van die kontrak, ook van toepassing gemaak op verskillende aspekte van ’n kontrak (bv bepalings insake monetêre eenheid of indemniteit). Die keuse van regsreëls wat nie op staatlike soewereiniteit gebaseer is nie, word slegs toegelaat met betrekking tot sekere omskrewe instrumente op die regionale, supranasionale en internasionale vlak. Die Afrika-Beginsels maak ook uitdruklik voorsiening vir die inkorporasie van nie-staatlike regsreëls deur middel van voldoening aan die vereistes daarvoor van die reg wat op die kontrak van toepassing is. Die Afrika-Beginsels stel streng vereistes vir stilswyende regskeuse, onder meer dat die keuse baie duidelik moet blyk uit die bepalings van die kontrak of die besondere omstandighede van die geval. Daar word bepaal dat die jurisdiksionele keuse van ’n hof of gelokaliseerde arbitrasietribunaal nie genoegsaam is vir die aanname van ’n stilswyende regskeuse nie maar dat dit wel ’n rol in die verband mag speel. Die Afrika-Beginsels stel voor dat konflikterende regskeuseklousules in standaardbedinge mekaar uitsluit, in elk geval as uitdruklike regskeuse.
Die Afrika-Beginsels bevat ’n aantal bepalings waaronder die substantiewe reg ’n selfstandige rol mag speel binne internasionaal-privaatregtelike verhoudings, en wel met verwysing na sekere internasionale instrumente. Die Afrika-Beginsels inkorporeer artikel 5 van die Haagse Beginsels binne ’n wye alternatiewe aanwysingsreël vir formele geldigheid, wat geïnspireer is deur ’n verskeidenheid van modelle. Die Afrika-Beginsels maak voorsiening vir ’n meer presiese omskrywing van die lex loci solutionis as wat gebruiklik is in die verband van voorrangreëls. Dit verskaf ook ’n voorstel vir die oplossing van die probleem van die toepassing van derdelandsreg benewens die lex loci solutionis. Die Afrika-Beginsels inkorporeer in die internasionale kontraktereg twee beginsels insake bestraffende skadevergoeding uit die reg insake die erkenning en afdwinging van buitelandse vonnisse.
Daar word aan die hand gedoen dat die formulerings in die Afrika-Beginsels gebruik kan word in toekomstige projekte vir die kodifikasie van internasionaal-privaatregtelike reëls insake kontrakte, nie slegs in Afrika nie, maar ook daarbuite.